Store visits are modeled using which non-Google Ads signals?

Store visits are estimated using aggregated and anonymized data from users who have opted in to Location History. This data includes GPS, Wi-Fi, and network signals, which help Google determine when a user has visited a physical store after interacting with an ad. This method provides a broad and reliable signal for store visit modeling. Interaction with an online ad then a visit to the physical store location describes the outcome being measured, not the non-Google Ads signals used for modeling. Third-party vendors might contribute to other data sets, but the primary non-Google Ads signals for store visits come directly from Google's own aggregated user data. Interaction with a location extension or affiliate location extension is a Google Ads signal, not a non-Google Ads signal, and while it can influence store visits, it's not the underlying modeling data.